Nuclear power in India

India’s nuclear program is unique in the world: marked by international disapproval following its 1974 nuclear test, it has the particularity of focusing on thorium. It is characterized by a rich history and major challenges. India had a total electricity capacity of around 180 GWe in 2009, but current demand requires at least 220 GWe. Nuclear power accounted for just 4.5 GWe in 2010, mainly due to the embargo imposed on the country between 1974 and 2008.

India’s nuclear history and policy

The beginnings of the nuclear program (1944-1954)

The father of India’s nuclear program, Homi J. Bhabha, founded the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in 1944. After India gained independence in 1947, he convinced Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of the importance of an ambitious nuclear program for the country’s development. In 1954, India set up the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to oversee nuclear energy research and development.

Launch of the three-stage program (1954-1974)

The three-stage nuclear program was designed to take advantage of India’s national resources, particularly its thorium reserves. The first stage involved the development of heavy-water reactors using natural uranium. The second stage involved the construction of fast-neutron reactors to produce plutonium from uranium. Finally, the third stage involved the use of thorium molten-salt reactors to generate electricity and produce uranium-233 from thorium.

First nuclear reactor and nuclear explosive test (1956-1974)

In 1956, India’s first nuclear research reactor, Apsara, became operational. In 1960, the first power reactor, the Tarapur Atomic Power Station, was commissioned. However, the 1974 “Smiling Buddha” nuclear explosive test led to India’s international isolation and the cessation of foreign aid for its nuclear program.

Period of isolation and autarky (1974-2008)

During this period, India developed its own nuclear technologies and built several power reactors. Despite the challenges posed by international isolation, India succeeded in mastering the entire nuclear cycle.

Lifting the embargo and international cooperation (2008-present)

In 2008, India signed a safeguards agreement with the IAEA, enabling the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) to authorize civil nuclear trade with India. Since then, India has signed bilateral cooperation agreements with several countries, including France, the USA and Russia. These agreements have enabled India to receive technologies, materials and support for its nuclear program.

Foreign suppliers have also signed agreements with NPCIL for the construction of light water reactors. AREVA was the first Western company to sign a commercial contract with India, for the supply of 300 tonnes of natural uranium to fuel Indian reactors already under IAEA safeguards.

Today, India is pursuing its three-stage nuclear program, seeking to increase its nuclear power generation capacity to meet the country’s growing energy demand. Although India has made significant progress in developing its nuclear sector, it still faces many challenges, particularly in terms of safety, waste management and public acceptance.

India’s civil nuclear program began in 1947 with Homi J. Bhabha, who persuaded Prime Minister Nehru to launch an ambitious nuclear power program, known as the “three-stage program”. India’s strategy was to develop thorium-powered reactors because of its large domestic reserves. The stages of the program included the development of heavy water reactors, followed by fast neutron reactors to produce the plutonium needed for the thorium cycle.

Challenges and prospects

Despite these successes, India faces a number of challenges in developing its nuclear sector.

• Firstly, uranium supply is a major issue for India. Domestic uranium reserves are limited and of low quality, resulting in high extraction and processing costs. Access to international uranium markets is therefore essential to sustain growth in the nuclear sector.
• Secondly, the development of thorium reactor technologies remains a key objective for India due to its abundant thorium reserves. However, the implementation of thorium molten salt reactor (MSR) technology is still at a preliminary stage, and India needs to invest in research and development to realize this ambition.
• Thirdly, nuclear safety and security issues are crucial to the development of India’s nuclear sector. The country must ensure that its facilities comply with international safety standards, and put in place rigorous regulatory and control mechanisms to minimize the risk of accidents.
• Fourthly, nuclear waste management is another major challenge. India needs to develop safe and sustainable storage solutions for radioactive waste, including high-level waste and spent fuel.

Overall, India’s nuclear sector offers considerable potential to help meet growing electricity demand and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. To meet the challenges mentioned, India needs to invest in research and development, strengthen international cooperation, improve safety and security standards, and involve the public in the dialogue on nuclear energy. If these challenges are successfully met, nuclear power can play a key role in India’s energy transition to a more sustainable future less dependent on fossil fuels.

Electricity in India

India’s total installed electrical capacity at the end of 2009 was around 180 GWe, whereas current demand requires an installed base of at least 220 GWe. 45% of Indian families have no access to electricity, and the remaining 55% face daily scheduled power cuts. Nuclear power represents a very small part of the electricity mix, with 4.65 GWe of installed capacity in 2010. This situation is the result of an uninterrupted political will, hampered by the embargo suffered by the country between 1974 and 2008.

Countries producing nuclear power

References

• On Indian policy: The controversial choice of nuclear power in India (https://www.cairn.info/revue-etudes-2011-9-page-151.htm)
• https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/43/038/43038335.pdf